Triangulation
In addition to the triangulation of methods, Denzin introduces three more triangulation types (cf. table below). These types and subtypes can be combined depending on interests, research problems and questions.
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Type of triangulation
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Subtypes
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Definition
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Guiding question
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Example
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Methodological triangulation
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Across-method
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An object is studied using at least two different research or data collection methods
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Can an object be studied better by using different research methods instead of only one method?
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A web-based course can be evaluated by, say, a questionnaire and by a focus-group interview. In addition, expert reviews, log-file analyses, etc. can be carried out.
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Within-method
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One set of data is studied using different analysis methods to obtain information about the characteristic features of an object
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Are the results of different analysis methods applied to the same set of data comparable?
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In the context of a quantitative study, the set of data is studied using different statistical testing procedures: Explorative data analyses, procedures for testing hypotheses related to differences and to interrelations, cluster analyses, etc.
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Data triangulation
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Chronological variation
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The object is studied at least on two different occasions
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Does the object have the same characteristic features at the different times of measurement?
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The acceptance of a teaching method is studied on three different occasions.
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Spatial variation
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The object is studied at no fewer than two different locations
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Does the object have the same characteristics at the different locations?
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A learning method is studied at different locations with comparable conditions.
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Personnel variation
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For the study of a social system, the characteristics of interest are studied in different subjects
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Do the people in the system of interest have comparable or congruent characteristics or experiences?
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To study the didactic quality of a learning arrangement, different groups of learners are included in the study.
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Observer triangulation
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Data collection by different observers
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The data for a subject is collected by different observers
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Does an investigation method lead to comparable results when it is used by different observers?
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A course is assessed by various people, and the collected data is compared.
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Theoretical triangulation
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Research with a background of various theories
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An object or phenomenon is studied using various theories. Explanation hypotheses with different theoretical approaches are formulated and their validity is tested.
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To what extent do the explanatory approaches of different (social) theories for the study of an object agree, to what extent do they differ?
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The acceptance of a teaching method is studied using different didactic theories of learning psychology.
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[1] [2]
